Arguments from the Quran

1.   The first verse is:

“And thus We have made you a middle nation so that you may be witnesses over the people, and the Messenger may be a witness over you.” (Quran, 2:143)

When we consult scholars of tafsir (exegesis) to understand this verse, we find that nearly all of them interpret “bearing witness” here as a role that belongs not to this world but to the Hereafter. This means that on the Day of Judgment, Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) community will be presented as witnesses in cases involving previous prophets and their disbelieving nations. This interpretation is based on certain narrations, which tell us that:

“On the Day of Judgment, there will be some prophets with only one or two or a few believers, while the rest of their people would have denied them. Then that nation to whom the Prophet was sent will be summoned. They will be asked, ‘Did Our message reach you?’ The people will respond, ‘No, it did not reach us.’ Then the Prophet will be asked, and he will say, ‘Yes, I delivered it.’ He will then be asked, ‘Do you have a witness?’ In response, the Prophet will name Muhammad (e) and his community. Then, Muhammad (e) and his community will be called and asked, ‘Did this prophet deliver the message to his people?’ They will answer, ‘Yes.’ Then the witnesses will be questioned, ‘Your time was after theirs; how do you know?’ They will reply, ‘Our Prophet informed us.’ This is the meaning of the verse, ‘And thus We have made you a middle (just) nation so that you may be witnesses over the people.’ (In another narration) following this, the state of the Ummah will be asked of Muhammad (), and he will testify to their fairness. This is the meaning of the verse ‘and the Messenger will be a witness over you.’” (Musnad Ahmad, Hadith No. 11558, 11283 )

Quoting this hadith, Allama Alusi of Baghdad writes:

You may be witnesses over the people—meaning, over all other nations on the Day of Judgment, bearing witness that Allah indeed made His way clear to them, sent Messengers who conveyed the truth, and fulfilled their duty of sincere counsel. “We made” in the verse refers to the appointment of this Ummah, and its purpose is specifically this. (Ruh al-Ma’ani, Vol. 1, p. 404)

Abu Hayyan al-Andalusi, while discussing scholars’ interpretations of this verse, writes:

One interpretation, supported by the majority of scholars of tafsir, is that this testimony pertains to the Hereafter. This means that the previous nations who denied their prophets will find this Ummah presented as witnesses on behalf of the prophets. This interpretation of bearing witness is substantiated by narrations in Bukhari and other hadith collections. (Al-Bahr al-Muheet, Vol. 2, p. 12)

However, there is more to understand about this verse. The accountability Allah will hold people responsible for on the Day of Judgment will clearly be based on the fact that the message of truth had reached them in this world, yet they chose not to accept it. In other words, the testimony given in the Hereafter about misguided nations will concern an event that already took place in this world. Therefore, the testimony in the Hereafter inherently means that a testimony of truth had been conveyed in this world earlier.^[1] In the past, the responsibility of delivering this testimony of truth was on the prophets, but after prophethood ended, it falls on the Ummah of Prophet Muhammad. Accordingly, some rare interpretations suggest a worldly aspect to this testimony.

Abu Hayyan al-Andalusi has mentioned this view in the following words:

Some have interpreted this to mean that the knowledge of deen (religion) you have received should be conveyed to others in the same manner that the Messenger () conveyed it to you. (Al-Bahr al-Muheet, Vol. 2, p. 12)

This interpretation is further supported by the fact that, even if this specific verse does not explicitly mention this responsibility, the duty to convey religious knowledge to others is a well-established obligation supported by other texts. It is also clearly stated in explicit texts that this work of preaching and invitation should be carried out so that Allah’s case against people may be established in the Hereafter.

“Messengers who brought good news and warnings so that the people would have no argument against Allah after the Messengers.” (Quran, 4:165)

Even if we accept all these possible interpretations within the context of the verse on shahada (bearing witness), what is ultimately established is only the responsibility of dawah (inviting) and tabligh (conveying the message), or warning and giving glad tidings. In other words, people should be fully informed of the reality that the Hereafter is coming and that there will be accountability, so that when people are gathered on the Day of Resurrection and asked about their deeds, no one can say, “You are holding us accountable for something about which we were not informed.” However, the mission of establishing divine governance does not arise from this verse.

2.   The second verse in this regard is as follows:

Allah has prescribed for you the same religion that He enjoined upon Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. And, O Muhammad, We have also revealed to you that you should uphold this religion and not be divided in it. (Quran, 42:13)

This verse is used to argue that al-deen here includes all individual, social, national, and international rules found in Islamic law, and that iqamat (establishment) means to uphold and enforce them. Therefore, this verse is understood to command the full implementation of the Shariah system in human life, making it completely dominant and enforced.

The original meaning of iqamat is to fulfill or perform something properly and completely (iqamat al-shay” means “to fulfill its right” (Al-Mufradat by Raghib Isfahani, p. 692). It can be used to refer to the external enforcement of a command, but its essential meaning is to perform an action accurately, not merely to enforce it. In a hadith, when the initial verses of Chapter Al-Mu’minun were revealed, the Prophet said:

“Indeed, “ten verses have been revealed to me; whoever upholds them [aqamahunna] will enter Paradise.” (Mustadrak al-Hakim, Hadith No. 3521)

The commands in these ten verses are as follows: to observe humility and attentiveness in prayer, to avoid frivolous and meaningless pursuits, to be steadfast in paying zakat, to guard one’s chastity, to fulfill trusts and commitments, and to be diligent in safeguarding one’s prayers. It is clear that all of these are individual duties, so the question of establishing or enforcing them on others does not arise. Here, iqamat means to fully adopt these practices and make them part of one’s life.

The interpretation of the verse described above is a modification that, to my knowledge, has not been offered by any major commentator so far. All tafsir scholars interpret al-deen in this verse as referring to the core of religion or its fundamental teachings, rather than the entire Shariah system. They agree that iqamat al-deen here does not mean establishing the entire Shariah system over others but rather fully adopting this essential part of the religion which is obligatory for every individual in all circumstances. And only after fully incorporating this into one’s life does a person become a Muslim in the sight of God. “Sair ma yakun al-mar’ bi iqamatihi Musliman” (Al-Kashshaf by Al-Zamakhshari, Vol. 4, p. 215; Madarik al-Tanzil by Al-Nasafi, Vol. 3, p. 248). That is, it signifies everything that, when upheld, defines a person as a Muslim.

In the circle influenced by the interpretation under discussion, this verse is often translated as “establish the religion.” Although this translation is not incorrect, it can lead to misunderstandings. In particular, within the framework shaped by this interpretation, the phrase tends to be understood as “make the religion dominant and enforced” or “implement it in all aspects of life, from the individual to the entire world.” However, this is not the intended meaning of “aqeemu al-deen” at all. A more accurate translation in Urdu, based on the original meaning, would be “adhere firmly to the religion.” Consequently, Urdu translators have generally not translated it as “establish the religion,” but rather have used wording similar to what we have chosen in our own translation. Here are some Urdu translations with English by notable scholars:

Shah Abdul Qadir: ye ke qayam rakho deen aur phoot na daalo. (Establish the religion and do not get divided.)

Shah Rafiuddin: ye ke qayam rakho deen aur mut mutafarraq ho beech is ke. (Establish the religion and do not create divisions within it.)

Abdul Haq Haqqani: isi deen par qayam rehna aur is mein phoot na daalna. (Adhere firmly to the religion and do not create divisions within it.)

Ashraf Ali Thanwi: isi deen ko qayam rakhna aur is mein tafarraqa na daalna. (Remain steadfast on this religion and do not create discord within it.)

Deputy Nazir Ahmad: isi deen ko qayam rakhna aur is mein tafarraqa na daalna. (Keep firm on this religion and do not create divisions within it.)

Sheikh-ul-Hind Mahmood Hasan: qayam rakho deen ko aur ikhtilaf na daalo is mein. (Maintain this religion and do not create divisions within it.)

One indication that “al-deen” here specifically refers to the core aspects of the faith is found in the following verses, where elements of false religions are contrasted with the true religion. These elements are limited to essential issues, as outlined in the Quranic verses.

• “arguing about Allah” (42:16)
• “debating about the Hour” (42:18)
• “seeking only worldly gains” (42:20)

After mentioning these three points, it is stated:

“Or do they have other gods who have prescribed for them a religion that Allah has not permitted?” (Quran, 42:21)

Commentator Alusi of Baghdad interprets the deen of shirk (the religion of those who associated partners with God) here as specifically referring to these three aspects: associating partners with Allah, denying the resurrection, and working solely for worldly gains. (Ruh al-Ma’ani, Vol. 3, p. 28)

These fundamental elements of the false religion emphasize what the key components of the true religion are, which the polytheists are being invited to embrace instead: monotheism, belief in the afterlife, and actions for the Hereafter. These three core elements are also highlighted in the verses defining the true religion, as seen in verses 4, 7, and 12 of this Chapter: 42.

This interpretation is based on the wording of the verse itself. When looking at the entire verse, it becomes clear that the command is to establish a deen that was revealed to all the prophets, from Noah to the final Messenger. Since the teachings revealed to different prophets were not exactly the same—though their core beliefs and principles were—the part of deen being referred to here must be the one that stayed consistent across all of them. Imam Razi comments on this as follows:

Prophet Noah is mentioned first, with all the other prophets following, which indicates that the command here refers to adhering fully to those aspects of the Shariah which were unanimously accepted by all the prophets. (Tafsir Kabir, Vol. 27, p. 587)

Imam Razi explains this interpretation as follows:

It is essential that “al-deen” here refers to something other than practical obligations and specific rulings, as these vary among the different prophets, according to the Quran’s own clarification. Therefore, “al-deen” here must refer to those matters that remain unaffected by the differences in Shariahs. These include belief in God, His angels, His books, His messengers, and the Last Day. From this foundational faith, further qualities emerge—such as detachment from worldly concerns, focus on the Hereafter, embracing good morals, and avoiding bad ones. (Tafsir Kabir, Vol. 27, p. 587)

Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi (1863-1943), one of the most prominent Muslim Ulama of the Indian subcontinent, writes in his commentary of the Quran:

“What is meant by ‘al-deen’ here are the fundamental principles of religion, which are common across all Shariahs, such as monotheism, prophethood, resurrection, and similar matters. ‘Establishing’ here means to uphold it without alteration or abandonment.” (Bayan al-Quran, Chapter 42, Verse 13)

All the commentators have expressed this same view. In any significant tafsir, I have not come across the interpretation that this verse commands, “Implement all individual and collective rulings of the religion across all areas of life.” Here, I will provide a few of these interpretations:

Abu al-‘Aliyah: In this verse, the meaning of establishing the religion (iqamat al-deen) is sincerity for Allah and worshipping Him. (Al-Bahr al-Muheet, Vol. 9, p. 329)

Mujahid: Allah commanded every prophet to establish prayer, give zakat, affirm belief in Allah, and obey Him; this is what is meant by iqamat al-deen (establishment of the religion). (Ruh al-Ma‘ani, Vol. 3, p. 231)

Abu Hayyan: This refers to the universally agreed-upon beliefs, including the oneness of Allah, obedience to God, belief in His messengers, His books, the Last Day, and the reward and recompense of deeds. (Al-Bahr al-Muheet, Vol. 9, p. 328)

Khazin: Here, iqamat al-deen (establishing the religion) refers to belief in the oneness of God, His books, His messengers, and the Hereafter, along with obedience to Him in His commands and prohibitions. It encompasses acting upon all those things by which one becomes a Muslim. In this context, deen does not refer to the specific Shariah laws prescribed for different nations, as these vary according to circumstances. Allah says, “To each of you We have prescribed a law and a clear way.” (Lubab at-Ta’wil, Vol. 4, p. 96)

Alusi al-Baghdadi: This means that deen al-Islam refers to monotheism (tawhid), obedience to God, belief in His books, His messengers, and the Day of Judgment, and everything by which one becomes a believer. Iqamat al-deen means to properly fulfill its pillars, safeguard them, and remain steadfast upon them. (Ruh al-Ma’ani, Vol. 13, p. 27)

Nizamuddin Qummi Nishapuri: “This means upholding its fundamentals, such as monotheism, prophethood, the afterlife, and the like, rather than the subsidiary rulings that vary according to times, as indicated by His saying: ‘To each of you We have prescribed a law and a clear way.’” (Gharaib al-Quran, Vol. 6, p. 70)

In other words, this refers to adherence to the fundamental teachings—such as monotheism, prophethood, belief in the Hereafter, and other essential principles—distinct from the subsidiary matters in which different Shariahs have differed.

Qurtubi: “It is the oneness of Allah, obedience to Him, belief in His messengers and books, the Day of Judgment, and everything by which a person, through upholding it, becomes a Muslim. It does not include the specific laws that are tailored to the welfare of different communities according to their circumstances, as these vary and differ.” (Tafsir Al-Qurtubi, Vol. 16, p. 10)

That is to say, it means affirming the oneness of God and obeying Him, believing in His messengers, His books, and the Day of Judgment—indeed, all those essentials by adhering to which a person becomes a Muslim. Here, it does not refer to the specific Shariahs given to different nations according to their circumstances, for these have always varied.

Ibn Kathir: “What is meant is the common ground between them, which is worshiping Allah alone without any partner, even though their Shariahs and paths may differ.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 7, p. 197)

That is to say, it refers to the common core of the prophets’ teachings: the worship of the one God alone, even though their Shariahs and practical laws may differ beyond that.

Abu al-Barakat al-Nasafi: “Allah has prescribed for you the religion of Noah, Muhammad, and the prophets between them, peace be upon them. Then He explains the shared prescribed principles among these distinguished prophets with His words, (establish the religion). What is meant here is the establishment of Islam, the oneness of Allah, obedience to Him, belief in His messengers and books, the Day of Judgment, and all that makes a person a Muslim by upholding it. It does not refer to the specific Shariahs, as they vary. From a grammatical perspective, the phrase “that you establish the religion” is either in the accusative case, functioning as a substitute (badal) for the object of “He prescribed,” or it is an independent sentence in the nominative case. As if the question were: What is it that has been prescribed? It was answered: It is to remain established upon this religion (upon which they were all agreed). (Madarik al-Tanzil, Vol. 3, p. 248)

This means that Allah has prescribed for you the religion of Noah, Muhammad, and the religion of the prophets who came between them. He then specified what is prescribed and common among these great prophets by saying, “establish the religion.” Here, iqamat al-deen (establishing the religion of Islam) refers to monotheism, obedience to God, belief in the messengers and the revealed books, the Day of Judgment, and all essential aspects that define a person as a Muslim. This command does not encompass the specific Shariahs of the prophets, as these differed among them. Grammatically, “an aqimu al-deen” could be in the accusative position, as it serves as a replacement for the object of shara‘h (prescribed), or it could be a separate clause in the nominative case. It is as if the question were, “What has been prescribed?” and the answer given is, “It is to establish this (universally agreed upon) religion.”

From these excerpts, it is evident that the specific wording of the verse led the scholars of tafsir to interpret deen here as adherence to the core teachings of faith. Given this, it would not be correct to interpret the verse as a command to implement all individual and collective laws of the religion across every domain of life.

This does not mean that, beyond the core principles of deen, the social and civilizational laws of Shariah are not relevant for us to “establish.” My purpose is simply to demonstrate that the establishment of these laws is not imposed upon us in absolute terms, as this interpretation attempts to do. This explains why the Quranic verses often cited in support of such an interpretation do not, in fact, substantiate it in the sense of explicitly commanding the implementation of collective religious laws by force on others. For example, “O David, We have made you a vicegerent on the earth, so judge between people in truth and do not follow desire” (Quran, 38:26). In contrast, this interpretation consistently draws its arguments from verses that are unrelated to the real issue. It is like someone who opposes private ownership of land and seeks to establish the theory of social ownership from the Quran. Such a person would not find their position supported by verses that discuss economic laws directly. Instead, they would turn to verses like “The earth belongs to Allah” and interpret it as support for their theory, even though the phrase has nothing to do with issues of land or factory ownership. In this way, all non-Quranic theories often seek validation from verses that are, in fact, irrelevant to the point at hand.

The third verse in this series is as follows:

“And fight them until there is no more fitnah (persecution or oppression), and the religion is entirely for Allah. But if they cease, then indeed, Allah is Seeing of what they do.” (Quran, 8:39)

This same verse appears elsewhere in the Quran, though without the word kullahu (entirely) (Quran, 2:193). It is said that in this verse, “the followers of Islam are commanded to fight in the world and not rest until all fitnah—meaning any systems based on rebellion against God—are eradicated.” (from Quran Ki Chaar Buniyadi Istlahein, discussion on “Deen”)

Further elaboration on this is that fitnah refers to “a state in society where human beings hold dominion and authority over others, making it impossible to live according to Allah’s laws.” Here, the meaning of “ceasing” does not imply that disbelievers must abandon their disbelief or polytheism, but rather that they must desist from the fitnah (oppression and rebellion). Disbelievers, polytheists, and atheists all have the right to hold their beliefs, worship as they wish, or choose not to worship at all. In addressing this misguidance, we will advise and counsel them, but we will not fight them for their beliefs alone. However, they do not have the right to implement false laws in place of God’s law on earth, or to make God’s servants subservient to anyone other than God.

To combat this fitnah, believers may use both persuasion and force, as appropriate and feasible, and a believer will not rest until the disbelievers cease from this fitnah. (Tafheem-ul-Quran, commentary on Al-Baqarah, note 204-205)

To understand this argument, let us first review the two verses in the Quran where this command appears:

“So kill them; such is the recompense for the disbelievers. But if they desist, then indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful. And fight them until there is no more fitnah (persecution or oppression) and the religion is entirely for Allah.” (Quran, 2:191-193)

The second passage is as follows:

“Say to those who have disbelieved that if they desist, they will be forgiven for what has passed. But if they persist in their previous ways, then the law concerning former peoples has already been enforced. And fight them until there is no more fitnah (persecution) and the religion is entirely for Allah. Then, if they cease, Allah is Seeing of what they do.” (Quran, 8:38-39)

Careful examination of the wording of the verse indicates that it does not simply command the establishment of a worldly system of governance, as explained above, without touching upon matters of belief. Rather, it commands fighting to change their beliefs:

1.        According to the verse, if the disbelievers stop the “fitnah” they are involved in, which is the reason for the command to fight them, they will be granted “forgiveness.” Clearly, forgiveness is not the reward for simply giving up political power or avoiding worldly corruption; it is only given to those who abandon disbelief and polytheism. ^[2]

2.        It is stated: “Say to those who have disbelieved, if they cease…” The structure of this phrase indicates, from a grammatical perspective, that “if they desist from disbelief” is implied, meaning that if they stop disbelieving, forgiveness is granted to them; otherwise, it is not.

3.        Furthermore, the purpose of this command, as understood by the source of revelation (the Prophet), and as shown in the way he fought his enemies, was, according to explicit hadiths, exactly this: to keep fighting them until they declared the declaration of monotheism (the kalimah of tawhid).

Accordingly, leaving aside a few isolated views, almost all commentators have understood this verse to mean that fighting has been commanded until people accept faith, and not merely in the general sense of putting an end to disorder or mischief. In their view, fitnah here signifies polytheism, and the term “its end” means the abandonment of polytheism. In other words, this command is to fight them until they are either killed or forced to abandon shirk and accept Islam. This interpretation is unanimously transmitted from Ibn Abbas, Abu al-‘Aliyah, Mujahid, Sa’id bin Jubayr, Hasan, Qatadah, Dhahhak, Rabi’, Maqatil bin Hayyan, Sudi, and Zayd bin Aslam. (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 1, p. 227).

After quoting this opinion, Ibn Kathir writes:

This interpretation is supported by the narrations in the two Sahih collections (Bukhari and Muslim), which state that The Prophet () said: “I have been commanded to fight the people until they say with their tongues, ‘There is no deity but Allah.’ Once they acknowledge this word, they will protect their lives and property from me, except in cases where they incur a right against them, and their account is with Allah.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 2, p. 309).

Similarly, Alusi Al-Bhagdadi writes: In this verse, fitnah refers to polytheism, as narrated from Qatadah, Sudi, and others. This interpretation is supported by the fact that for the polytheists of Arabia, the options are either Islam or the sword; there is no alternative. As stated in another part of the Quran, Allah says, “You fight them or they submit.” (Ruh al-Ma’ani, Vol. 1, p. 427)

I will provide two references:

1.        Here, Allah Almighty is telling His Prophet (e) to say to the disbelievers: “If you desist from disbelief and hostility towards Islam, and accept Islam and adopt the path of repentance and obedience, then all your sins from the time of your disbelief will be forgiven.” (Tafsir Ibn Kathir, Vol. 4, p. 54)

2.        The meaning is that you should fight them until polytheism is completely eradicated from among them, all their false religions are eliminated, and only the religion of Islam remains. Then, when they abandon disbelief and accept Islam, Allah Almighty will reward them for their acceptance. However, if they do not believe and do not abandon their disbelief, then Allah will be your helper. (Madarik al-Tanzil, Vol. 1, p. 645)

The core message of this verse is that the qital (fighting) mentioned here is a specific type related to the final Messenger. In this verse, the disbelievers are subjected to the sunnah (tradition) of previous nations. Here, disbelievers refer to those who, despite receiving the final Messenger’s invitation and full clarity, still remain disbelievers. The way of Allah, as described in the Quran concerning such people, is that they are destroyed by calamities from the earth and from above.In the case of the addressees of the final Messenger, this punishment, for specific reasons, took a particular form: the believers were granted permission to fight them and put an end to their dominance: “Fight them; Allah will punish them by your hands.” (Quran, 9:14).

The history of a people from Arabia (Thamud) is narrated in the Quran, stating that when their Prophet had completed his mission, and they still did not believe, they were ultimately given a warning: “Enjoy yourselves in your abode for three days.” (Quran, 11:65) After those three days, a great calamity struck them. They were annihilated as if they had never existed. In the same way, when the final Prophet completed his argument against his people, it was announced: “Travel freely on the earth for four months.” After the four months, the believers were commanded to kill them wherever they found them. Their choice was either Islam or death; there was no other option. (Quran, 9:1-5)

If we consider this verse in connection with the qital that began after the Hijrah between the Messenger and his earliest audience (the descendants of Ishmael), based on God’s direct command, we can understand it easily. For these people, due to specific circumstances, the Messenger received the command that nothing should be accepted from them except Islam. However, if this is taken as a theoretical basis to derive a general mission for Muslims, then according to this verse, that mission would imply that we fight to make people accept Islam. Yet it is known that Allah has not given us such authority.